| For fifteen years, researchers have studied both the Scarlet Macaw
population and the local human communities which coexist with them.
Ecological studies have included demography, diet, nesting ecology
and chick behavior, chick growth and fledgling behavior. Social studies
with local stakeholders have included: the effect of environmental
education, community ecotourism and community conservation.
Ecology
Demography (Vaughan et al. 2005, Vaughan 2002)
The morning population counts conducted yearly since 1990 have formed
the back bone of the Scarlet Macaw project. This is the longest running
monitoring of a macaw population worldwide.
From 1990-1994 morning and afternoon counts were carried out continuously
for 60 months and averaged monthly. Analysis revealed several patterns:
a) a yearly cycle with a peak in macaw numbers observed between July
and September, and b) lowest average monthly numbers counted between
January and March. The Central Pacific Scarlet Macaw pairs nest between
December and May so numbers are minimal at this time because breeding
pairs don’t fly to the mangroves to roost. By July, young begin
to migrate with their parents from mangroves to surrounding areas
in the morning and return in the late afternoon. This is when highest
average monthly numbers were counted. By late September, pairs and
their young begin other patterns, including guarding nests, so average
monthly macaw numbers leaving the mangrove start dropping and the
cycle begins again. The yearly pattern established with these 550
counts is presented in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Average monthly Central Pacific Scarlet Macaw counts (555
counts). Costa Rica
Another pattern observed was that the population was decreasing
by approximately 8 birds (4%) each year. This disturbing information
made locals and researchers realize that the population would go extinct
if it reached a critical minimum threshold. Together, locals and researchers
organized a regional workshop in October of 1994 with other stakeholders
which analyzed the Scarlet Macaw situation and sought solutions. From
these workshops, LAPPA (Association for the Protection of Psittacines)
was formed and nest protection, installation of artificial nest boxes
and environmental education in local schools was initiated.
Monitoring was also considered important. Thus, the counts continued
on a yearly basis after 1995 and recently, data from 1990-2003 was
analyzed to reveal further trends (Figure 2). A model fitted to this
data showed that the population increased dramatically (by about 37
birds) in 1995 and 1996 and has remained stable since 1997. The dramatic
increase in 1995-1996 was attributed to the conservation measures
which LAPPA began with local stakeholder groups.
Figure 2. Average August counts of the Central Pacific Scarlet Macaw
population, Costa Rica (1990-2003)(n = 171 counts)
Considering trios and quartets as adult pairs with their fledglings
allowed researchers to estimate the recruitment of young to the population
each year. Young-to-adult ratios between 1990-2003 averaged 6.1% (6
young per 100 adults). However in 1995, 1996 and 2000, young-to-adult
radios were between 8-9%. On August 18, 1995 and August 21, 1996,
27 and 30 young were counted respectively, instead of the normal 15-18
young. This chick doubling may be related to the intensive anti-poaching
work started in 1995. The consequent stabilization shows these conservation
efforts could not be sustained after 1997. However this data demonstrates
that collaborative conservation by local stakeholders increased the
population of this threatened species.
Figure 3. Average young-to-adult radio based on August counts in
Scarlet Macaw population, Central Pacific Conservation Area, Costa
Rica (1990-2003) (n = 171 counts).
Diet – (Vaughan et.
al in press b)
Scarlet macaw feeding behavior was studied from 1993-1997. Macaws
fed on seeds, fruits, leaves, flowers and/or bark of 43 plant species.
Three species: Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), Gallinazo (Schizolobium parahybum),
and Jabillo (Hura crepitans) (Photos) were key species for nesting
as well as feeding. Some tree species, such as Jabillo, contain compounds
which are toxic for most animals, however these seeds form an important
part of the Scarlet Macaw’s diet. These results contribute to
Scarlet Macaw conservation in the Central Pacific by promoting individual
tree protection and local elementary school reforestation programs
using species macaws use for foraging or nesting.
Range – (Marineros 1993,
Marineros and Vaughan 1995)
In 1993, Scarlet Macaw distribution in the region was determined by
interviewing local residents in a 1,360 km2 area surrounding Carara
National Park and plotting results on a map. There were three main
zones of Scarlet Macaw occurrence: common, frequent and rare (Map-WHERE
IS THIS?). The macaws inhabit an area of approximately 560 km2 centered
around Carara National Park. However, in recent years the Scarlet
Macaws seem to have expanded their range into areas from which they
were absent in 1993 (not found on the map). This includes areas such
as the nearby town of Jacó. New interviews are recommended
to assess current range limits.
Fledgling behaviour and movement
(Myers & Vaughan 2004)
Between 1995 and 1997, eight chicks from four nests were fitted with
radio collars and followed after fledging for up to 97 days. In 1996,
behavioral data was taken for two fledglings for 77 days. Monitoring
fledglings after they left the nest was critical to saving weak birds
which fall to the ground and become vulnerable to predation. Researcher
intervention was necessary to save individuals, usually the younger
chick. Fledglings gradually developed flight and feeding skills and
learned behaviors and movement patterns from their parents. After
several months, they became integrated into social groups during the
post-fledgling period. These results stress the importance of in situ
conservation focusing on nest cavity management and protection in
cooperation with local communities.
Nesting ecology (Vaughan
et. al 2003a, Vaughan 2002)
A total of 56 nests were found between 1992 and 2000. The two most
important tree species for nesting were Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) and
Gallinazo (Schizolobium parahybum). Some nests were used on a yearly
basis. Nests were found in various habitat types including primary
forest, secondary forest, pasture and mangrove swamp. Two-thirds of
nests were considered at high poaching risk. In January 2005, 22 active
nests were found, including three active nests in one huge Ceiba tree!!
Thirty-eight artificial nest boxes were installed from 1995–2000
and eggs hatching in at least 11 of these. Artificial nests were constructed
of various materials including wood, PVC 14-inch tubes and 55 gallon
plastic barrels. In 2004, 15 artificial nest boxes were installed
in three sites where protection of active nests was guaranteed. Macaws
entered several of these, but did not lay eggs in any.
Chick growth (In preparation)
Since 2000 scarlet macaw nestling development has been monitored.
Nestlings are weighed and measurements include the following: Primary
and tail feather length, beak, full body, wing, tarsal and metatarsal
length and neck circumference. These values can be used to estimate
the age of nestlings in other nests. The most predictive measurement
for age is weight.
Use of Digital photography
(Dear & Vaughan submitted)
Sometimes chicks cannot be removed from a nest because the nest is
too deep, chicks are too young, time is limited, spread of disease
is a risk, etc. To resolve this problem, digital photos were taken
of nestlings within the nest cavities and these were compared with
pictures of chicks of known ages. This reduced stress and risk of
spreading disease.
Parental nest visitation
(In preparation)
The amount of time nesting adult scarlet macaws spent in their nests
was studied in 2002, 2004 and 2005. Total parental time in the nest
and duration of visits decreased significantly during nestling development.
This correlated with newly hatched nestling's need for parental care
which decreases with age. This parental behavior permits a scientist
or macaw poacher to estimate nestling age from the ground, eliminating
need to climb the nest, which can be time consuming, difficult, and
sometimes impossible.
Social Studies
Environmental education (Vaughan et al. 2003b, Vaughan 2002)
A month-long course on the conservation and natural history of Scarlet
Macaws was given to 50 fourth grade children in a town near Carara
National Park in 2001. The course was evaluated by conducting three
rounds of interviews: before; immediately after the course and 8 months
after the course. The two post course exams evaluated the learning
and retention of course knowledge. The interviews were carried out
not only with the children taking the course, but also their parents
and a control group of unrelated adults in the community.
Those
interviewed were selected to examine if knowledge learnt by children
in an environmental education course reaches adults in a community.
Parents' knowledge increased between the pre and first post test.
The second post test eight months after the start of the course showed
that children retained knowledge on 67%, parents on 52% of questions
and the control group's knowledge increased on 29% of questions. The
study proved that under certain conditions, teaching environmental
education to children can educate both the decision makers of the
future, their parents and other community members.
Community conservation
(Vaughan 2002)
The evolution of LAPPA was analyzed from 1994-2000. Conservation efforts
were initiated by Club Punta Leona, the town of Quebrada Ganado and
the Universidad Nacional. Two regional workshops using strategic planning
recommended the following conservation measures which LAPPA was created
to carry out:
a) Carrying out environmental education programs
b) Protecting active macaw nests
c) Increasing macaw food and nesting sources
d) Continued research and monitoring of the macaw population
e) Promoting the project and providing economic returns for locals
In 1999, LAPPA's board of directors considered they had successfully
carried out items a. and b. However to ensure future success board
members believed that the future needs for LAPPA were:
a) Additional community leaders in more communities
b) Yearly strategic planning
c) Funding to hire a full-time staff member
d) Continued environmental education for children
e) A transparent accounting system
f) Continued research and monitoring
Publications
Dr. Vaughan's Publications Online
Selected Publications
Demography
Vaughan, C., Nemeth, N., Cary, J. and Temple, S. (2005). Response
of a Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) population to conservation practices
in Costa Rica. Bird Conservation International 15:119-130.
Diet
Vaughan, C., Nemeth, N. and Marineros, L. In press b. Scarlet Macaw
(Ara macao) diet in Central Pacific, Costa Rica. Revista de Biologia
Tropical.
Range and Scarlet Macaw Ecology
Marineros, L. (1993) La lapa roja (Psittacidae: Ara macao): Ecologia,
turismo y pautas para su manejo en la Reserva Biologica Carara., Costa
Rica. Master’s thesis, Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica.
Marineros,
L. and Vaughan, C. (1995) Scarlet Macaws of Carara. Pp. 445-467 in
J. Abramson, B. Speer and J. Thomsen, eds. The large macaws: their
care, breeding and conservation. Fort Bragg, CA: Raintree Publications.
Response
of a Scarlet Macaw Ara macao population to conservation practices
in Costa Rica
Vaughan, C., N. M. Nemeth, J. Cary, and S. Temple. 2005
Fledgling
behaviour and movement
Myers, M. and Vaughan, C. (2004) Movement and behaviour of scarlet
macaws (Ara macao) during the post-fledgling dependence period: implications
for in situ versus ex situ management. Biol. Conserv. 118: 411-420.
Nesting
ecology
Vaughan, C., Nemeth, N. and Marineros, L. (2003a) Ecology and management
of natural and artificial Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) nest cavities
in Costa Rica. Ornit. Neotrop. 14: 381-396.
Use of Digital Photography
Dear, F. and C. Vaughan. (2004) Use of Digital Photography for Protection
and Study of Scarlet Macaw Nestlings. Ornitologia Neotropical. Submitted
Environmental
Education
Vaughan, C., Gack, J., Solorzano, H. and Ray, R. (2003a) The effect
of environmental education on school children, their parents and community
members: A study of intergenerational and intercommunity learning.
Journal of Environmental Education
Community Conservation
Vaughan, C. (2002) Conservation strategies for a Scarlet Macaw (Ara
macao) population in Costa Rica. PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin.
Vaughan …… Community Tourism: An Alternative to
NR Exploitation in the Central Pacific Region (2000)
Vaughan……..Do Local Communities Benefit from National
Parks in Developing Countries? (2001)
Beyond the Borders: The Costa Rican System of Conservation
Areas (1997) |
